Long before the advent of sport sparring and modern safety gear, in a time when fighting meant defending one’s life, an ingenious method of transmitting martial skills from master to disciple was developed.

Tradition holds that it started with warriors who returned from combat and decided to re-enact techniques they used to vanquish enemies on the battlefield in an effort to educate those who were less experienced in the ways of war.

In all likelihood, this ritual was performed on countless occasions around campfires, in secluded gardens and at Buddhist temples, lending credence to the notion that formal martial arts exercises have existed for centuries.

In fact, scholars have uncovered numerous works of art that depict this practice taking place in antiquity. Such choreographed sequences of martial arts movements play an important role in traditional taekwondo.

Whether you call them poomsae, hyung or tul, forms are used to teach techniques designed to fend off attacks coming from various directions. They also can be thought of as mini-catalogs of the traditional skills that make up the art.

In the eyes of many researchers, taekwondo forms can be separated into two categories: those that were created in modern times and those that can trace their roots to the distant past.

To appreciate the significance of this division, we must first acknowledge that the formal exercises found in traditional taekwondo were not created in a vacuum. Rather, an analysis of the historical evidence reveals that empty-hand fighting arts, in conjunction with their associated formal exercises, developed naturally across continents as various cultures tried to cope with the dangers posed by human aggression and imperialist desire.

The need to practice prearranged chains of combat techniques in a relatively relaxed environment devoid of mayhem and death was apparently universal.

In Moving Zen, Shotokan karate practitioner C.W. Nicol describes forms practice as “a dynamic dance, a battle without bloodshed or vanquished.” He goes on to say that “we are somehow touching the warrior ancestry of all humanity” and that “of all the training in karate, none is more vigorous, demanding or exhilarating than”

From this, we can see that poomsae training, if approached in a traditional manner, not only cultivates offensive and defensive proficiency and develops ki, but also establishes a link with masters of the past who clearly did not perform formal exercises merely for physical fitness as some have claimed. Rather, they did them as a means of collating hard-earned martial skills for the benefit of all future students of the art.

Roots

To understand the history, philosophy and applications of traditional taekwondo forms, one must consider the role that Okinawan/Japanese kata and Chinese taolu played in their creation. In 1901, Tatsutsune “Anko” Itosu (1830–1915) introduced karate into the curriculum of Shuri Jinjo Elementary School and later throughout the Okinawan educational system with the goal of cultivating physical fitness and enriching the character of students. This worthy objective was accomplished in part by practicing sanitized versions of the pinan (peaceful mind) kata created by Itosu.

Because self-defense was not the focus of this training, the practical applications of the techniques were intentionally masked or eliminated. This method of instruction represented a shift in forms training that had great ramifications. Criticized for diluting the fundamental purpose of kata — and, thus, karate in general because forms were said to represent the core of the art — Itosu wrote, “You must decide whether your kata is for cultivation of health or for its practical use.” He further advised adult students to “always practice kata with its practical use in mind.”

Another endorsement of kata, one that represented it as a central pillar of karate-do, came from Gichin Funakoshi (1868–1957), who in his youth traveled the back roads between Naha and Shuri by lantern light to study with Itosu and a colleague named Tatsutsune Azato (1828–1906).

Funakoshi was required to repeat individual kata under the supervision of Azato, often for months on end. It clearly instilled in Funakoshi an appreciation for the formal exercises, one that he carried for the rest of his life.

Funakoshi didn’t bring his karate to Japan until 1922 while he was in his early 50s. Yet through a concerted effort by him and his third son Gigo (1906–1945), who moved to Tokyo in 1923 at age 17, significant changes were made to the traditional methods of teaching Okinawan karate.

For example, in an attempt to simplify the pronunciation of “pinan,” Funakoshi changed the nomenclature to heian while altering certain prescribed stances and kicks. Likewise, Gigo is credited with creating ritual one-step sparring and the three taikyoku (or kihon) kata that virtually mirror the kicho patterns used today in traditional taekwondo. The taikyoku set was generally used as a precursor to the more complex heian kata.

Evolution

Recognizing the vital roles that Itosu, Azato and Funakoshi played in the proliferation of forms brings us one step closer to the nexus that links Okinawan/Japanese kata and contemporary taekwondo forms. Korean forms were heavily influenced by events that occurred in neighboring countries shortly before and during the Japanese occupation (1910–1945).

The practice of karate required a deep understanding of and respect for kata, which continues to stand as a centerpiece of its practice. This principle was almost certainly inculcated in chung do kwan founder Won Kook Lee (1907–2003); Byung In Yoon (1920–1983) of the chang moo kwan; Hwang Kee (1914–2002), father of the moo duk kwan; and Choi Hong-hi (1918–2002), creator of the oh do kwan, while they studied in Japan under either shudokan karate founder Kanken Toyama (1888–1966) or Funakoshi.

All these innovators, who were destined to promote martial traditions within their native land, returned home from abroad with practical knowledge of the taikyoku, pinan, bassai, jitte, empi and tekki kata that would ultimately evolve into the kicho, pyung-ahn, balsek, sip soo, yunbee and chul-ki hyung, respectively, of taekwondo.

Throughout the 1950s and early ’60s, when taekwondo — still referred to as tae soo do, tang soo do or kong soo do in some circles — was still in its infancy, poomsae practice consisted largely of exercises derived from these Okinawan, Japanese and Chinese disciplines. As a result, the founding fathers of the original kwan (institutes) couldn’t help but transmit the formal exercises they had learned abroad while their nation was under the Japanese occupation.

Nevertheless, a strong desire existed among many masters, Choi Hong-hi not being the least, to create patterns with a distinctly Korean flavor. Consequently, in founding his style of taekwondo, Choi was the first to deviate from the past by developing the chang han forms between 1955 and 1988 with the assistance of Tae Hi Nam, Young Il Kong, Cha Kyo Han, Chang Keun Choi, Jae Lim Woo, Kim Bok Man and Jung Tae Park. They were influenced by techniques culled from Choi’s training in karate-do.

Furthermore, as a tribute, Choi based the underlying definition of each pattern on personalities and concepts pivotal to Korean history. The chang han series of International Taekwon-Do Federation forms consists of 24 patterns and differs significantly from others in that their movements describe a wave pattern as the body transitions from stance to stance and technique to technique.

Following Choi’s exodus from Korea and the eventual entrenchment of the Korea Taekwondo Association, coupled with the establishment of Kukkiwon and the World Taekwondo Federation by a younger generation of practitioners not directly affected by Japanese instruction, three sets of forms were developed over the course of eight years in an effort to eliminate any vestige of foreign influence. Of these, the elder palgwe and yudanja series, created between 1965 and 1967, were intended to test the proficiency of color-belt (gup) students and black-belt (dan) practitioners, respectively.

Partially inspired by the pinan/heian kata, the eight palgwe poomsae reflect philosophical doctrines culled from the I Ching (Book of Changes) and tend to emphasize low stances amplified by a variety of hand techniques. Moreover, the technical component increases in complexity as the student progresses, thus providing a barometer for rank advancement.

The yudanja poomsae were crafted concurrently with the palgwe set and at the time included original koryo, keumgang, taebaek, pyongwon, sipjin, jitae, cheonkwon, hansoo and ilyo. (The latter eight of these continue to be sanctioned by Kukkiwon, the Korea Taekwondo Association and the World Taekwondo Federation.) Aside from their technical diversity, the yudanja forms follow lines of motion described by Chinese and Korean characters that depict the philosophical concept characterized by each poomsae and contain advanced techniques.

The committee members participating in the formation of the palgwe and yudanja forms consisted of Keun Sik Kwak (chung do kwan), Young Sup Lee (song moo kwan), Kyo Yoon Lee (han moo kwan), Hae Man Park (chung do kwan), Jong Myung Hyun (oh do kwan), Soon Bae Kim (chang moo kwan) and Chong Woo Lee (ji do kwan).

Update

Since its inception in the mid-20th century, taekwondo has continued to evolve. Even today, technical enhancements are evident at almost every training venue in South Korea — whether at a university offering “taekwondology” as a major or at Kukkiwon. And so it comes as no surprise that less than a decade after the introduction of the palgwe forms, it was decided by committee to generate an innovative series of formal exercises in conjunction with a revised version of original koryo.

Born in 1972, the taegeuk poomsae effectively replaced the existing palgwe forms. This significant modification to the taekwondo curriculum of the time is thought to have been politically oriented inasmuch as the moo duk kwan was not represented during the formulation of the palgwe series. Yet in a practical sense, the taegeuk poomsae were exceptional in that they contained the high-forward or walking stance and featured a greater percentage of kicking techniques than their forerunners.

Moreover, as taekwondo evolved into a combat sport with Olympic aspirations, a method was required to teach and support the upright fighting stance used in sparring competition, and these new poomsae satisfied that need. If viewed from above, the pattern of movement within the taegeuk forms traces the Chinese character for “king.” Referencing the Korean flag (taegeukgi), the forms share philosophical principles that run parallel to those of the palgwe series based on the powers or elements of the universe.

Concurrently with the creation of the taegeuk series, the original koryo form was superseded by an intricate poomsae bearing the same name. Opening dramatically with a knifehand block in a back stance, which is quickly followed by two side kicks of varying height, kukki koryo poomsae was deemed appropriately challenging for the black-belt holder and a worthy vehicle to gauge proficiency for promotion to second dan.

Overseeing the developmental process of kukki koryo and the taegeuk series were Keun Sik Kwak (chung do kwan), Young Sup Lee (song moo kwan), Kyo Yoon Lee (han moo kwan), Hae Man Park (chung do kwan), Jong Myung Hyun (oh do kwan), Soon Bae Kim (chang moo kwan) and Chong Woo Lee (ji do kwan), with the addition of Young Ki Bae (ji do kwan) and Young Tae Han (moo duk kwan).

Over the years, other patterns were created by first- and second-generation grandmasters, including the seven chi/sung hyung of moo duk kwan soo bahk do and the 18 songahm forms of the American Taekwondo Association. They reflect slightly divergent styles of the Korean martial art.

Today, the forms that Korean stylists are required to learn vary greatly from organization to organization and school to school. Based on the 1970s edict by Kukkiwon that the taegeuk series should eclipse the palgwe series completely, a vast majority of master instructors sadly jettisoned the latter in favor of the former. Likewise, the original iteration of koryo was replaced by the radically different version currently sanctioned by the WTF, Kukkiwon and the KTA.

Nevertheless, schools supporting a classical approach to training frequently include both the palgwe forms and what has come to be known as “original koryo” in their syllabus. Moreover, as an adjunct to the traditional curriculum, many poomsae with a direct lineage to their Japanese/Okinawan and Chinese kin are also included.

Although they’ve been altered somewhat to suit the basic parameters of taekwondo, we see evidence of this fact with the inclusion of formal exercises such as balsek (bassai), chul-ki (tekki/nihanchi), yunbee (empi), sip soo (jitte) and jion, to name a few.

Future

The practice of forms is a double-edged sword: forfeiting poomsae altogether in favor of strategies that focus on sparring represents a tragedy of grand proportions because it denies the practitioner a chance to experience the myriad benefits associated with the process.

Likewise, attempting to master every pattern in taekwondo could be equally injurious to one’s martial education because an in-depth analysis of the practical applications of so many forms would require many lifetimes. As Funakoshi was fond of saying, “The old masters used to keep a narrow field but plow a deep furrow.”

In many circles today, it’s said that if the traditional methods of teaching taekwondo are to be preserved, it will occur in the West. This statement is based in part on the fact that the most influential practitioners no longer reside within the borders of Korea. 

Moreover, a vast number of instructors outside the homeland of taekwondo favor the practice of formal exercises coupled with self-defense techniques — both hallmarks of traditional taekwondo — rather than Olympic-style sparring and fitness-oriented training. Clearly, it’s this group that will safeguard the rich heritage of traditional taekwondo and act as fertile ground for the conservation and continued cultivation of the forms unique to the art.

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